Semantic Web Language Layering

• we'll talk about a hierarchy of languages

  ...
  DAML+OIL	+ computed classes, equivalence, etc.
  RDF Schema	+ subclasses/subproperties
  RDF	+ object graph structure
  XML	syntax

• these are the part of a larger ultimate vision presented by Tim Berners-Lee at XML 2000
  

Steps Toward the Semantic Web

• personal opinion: most organizations will adopt and gain benefit from the Semantic Web in several stages
  1. creation of linked objects webs (the data equivalent of hypertext)
  2. use of agents (24x7 programs rather than human GUIs)
  3. use of reasoning engines and other advanced capabilities

RDF Graph Model

• the central concept to RDF and DAML+OIL is the RDF Graph Model
• a resource is something that can be named with a URI reference
  • e.g. http://www.daml.org/researchers#dean
  • for our purposes, resources will generally be DAML+OIL instances
• an RDF statement associates a subject resource with an object resource or literal using a predicate resource, e.g.
  
• a graph (or model) contains statements with common resources merged, e.g.
  

Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs)

• a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is either
  • a Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
    • e.g. http://www.daml.org/researchers
  • a Uniform Resource Name (URN)
    • e.g. isbn:0062515861
• a URI reference is either
  • a URI
    • e.g. http://www.daml.org/researchers
  • a URI plus a fragment
    • e.g. http://www.daml.org/researchers#dean

RDF Schema

• RDF Schema adds to RDF a type system of classes and properties
• an instance is related to its Class using an rdf:type predicate
  
• a property is a resource that will be used as a predicate in statements
• both classes and properties are first-class objects
• RDF schemas are defined using the same graph structure as RDF instances
• multiple inheritance is supported using rdfs:subClassOf and rdfs:subPropertyOf predicates
• example:
  
  or more fully
  

Subproperties

• in addition to subclasses, RDFS supports subproperties, e.g.

  <rdfs:Property rdf:ID="parent"/>
  <rdfs:Property rdf:ID="father">
    <rdfs:subPropertyOf rdf:about="#parent"/>
  </rdfs:Property>
  <rdfs:Property rdf:ID="mother">
    <rdfs:subPropertyOf rdf:about="#parent"/>
  </rdfs:Property>
  

  allows us define our data using mother and father, but then query on either mother, father, or parent

XML Namespaces

• RDF(S) and DAML+OIL use Qualified Names (QNames) from the XML Namespaces Recommendation to abbreviate URIs
  • e.g. rdf:type might expand to http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type
• a namespace prefix is defined within the scope of an element containing xmlns attributes, e.g.

  <rdf:RDF xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#"
           xmlns:rdfs="http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#">
    <rdfs:Class rdf:ID="Foo"/>
    ...
  </rdf:RDF>
  

• a default namespace can optionally be defined using xmlns without a prefix, e.g. the following is equivalent to the example above

  <rdf:RDF xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#"
           xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#">
    <Class rdf:ID="Foo"/>
    ...
  </rdf:RDF>
  

• in RDF(S), QNames can be used as XML element tags and attributes names, but not within attribute values, e.g.

  <!-- BAD: -->
    <rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="rdfs:Resource">
  <!-- GOOD: -->
    <rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#Resource">
  <!-- GOOD: -->
    <!DOCTYPE rdf:RDF [
      <!ENTITY rdfs 'http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#'>
    ]>
    ...
    <rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="&rfds;Resource">
  

DAML+OIL Ontology

• a DAML+OIL ontology is essentially a web page containing
  • an optional daml:Ontology instance
  • a set of classes
  • a set of properties
  • a set of restrictions relating the classes and properties (we'll talk more about this later)

EXAMPLE/DEMONSTRATION

Demo Scenario

• a notional Mark 2002 sensor that can be used in fixed locations or attached to a platform (aircraft, UAV, etc.)
• show object links
  • event to sensor
  • sensor to sensor characteristics
  • data to metadata
  • adding information
  • statements about statements (pedigree)

DAML+OIL Content Used in Example

• generic
  • location-ont (dumpont)
• domain specific
  • sensor-type-ont (dumpont)
  • sensor-ont (dumpont)
  • event-ont (dumpont)
  • logistics-ont (dumpont)
• application specific
  • mk2002 (dumpont)
  • TOE (Table of Organization and Equipment) (hyperdaml)
  • events (hyperdaml)
  • logistics (hyperdaml)

DAML+OIL XML SYNTAX

RDF/XML Syntax

• RDF(S) graphs are primarily represented using the RDF/XML syntax

rdf:RDF

• RDF(S) content should appear within an rdf:RDF element, e.g.

  <rdf:RDF xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#">
    ...
  </rdf:RDF>
  

• DAML+OIL uses rdf:RDF for downward compatibility with RDF(S)
• only one rdf:RDF element should appear within a given page

rdf:Description

• the basic syntax for defining RDF(S) statements is

  <rdf:Description rdf:about="subjectURI">
    <predicate1 rdf:resource="objectURI"/>
    <predicate2>objectLiteral</predicate2>
    ...
  </rdf:Description>
  

  which produces
  
  

rdf:ID

• rdf:ID="name" is equivalent to rdf:about="#name", e.g.

  <rdf:Description rdf:ID="name">
    <predicate>literal</predicate>
  </rdf:Description>
  

  produces
  
• many parsers will issue a warning if a given name is used with multiple rdf:IDs
• using multiple rdf:abouts with the same URI is fine

typedNodes

• the URI of a Class can be used instead of rdf:Description, i.e.

  <Class ...>
    ...
  </Class>
  

  is equivalent to

  <rdf:Description ...>
    <rdf:type rdf:resource="Class"/>
    ...
  </rdf:Description>
  

• if an instance has multiple types, it's fine to use

  <Class1 rdf:ID="instance">
    <rdf:type rdf:resource="Class2"/>
  </Class1>
  

  which produces
  

Anonymous Nodes

• you don't have to give every instance a URI, e.g.

  <rdf:Description>
    <predicate rdf:resource="object"/>
  </rdf:Description>
  

  produces
  
• an anonymous node can't be explicitly referenced as the source or object of another statement

Striping

• within an rdf:Description, alternating elements may be nested specifying property and descriptions, e.g.

  <Airport rdf:ID="SAN">
    <location>
      <Location>
        <latitude>32.7336</latitude>
        <longitude>-117.1866</longitude>
      </Location>
    </location>
  </Airport>
  

  produces
  

Literal parseType

• a literal value containing XML (e.g. XHTML) can be specified without further escaping using rdf:parseType="Literal", e.g.

  <Talk rdf:ID="daml">
    <description rdf:parseType="Literal">
      This talk discusses <a href="http://www.daml.org/">DAML</a>.
    </description>
  </Talk>
  

  produces
  
• the XML must be well-formed

Statement IDs

• we can use a statement as the subject of another statement
  • this is useful for recording source, timetamp, uncertainty, etc.
• we give a statement an ID by specifying rdf:ID with the predicate, e.g.

    <Person rdf:ID="jhd">
      <born rdf:ID="stmt1">1923-10-23</born>
      <died rdf:ID="stmt2">1999-03-17</died>
    </Person>
    <rdf:Description rdf:about="#stmt1">
      <source rdf:resource="http://..."/>
    </rdf:Description>
    <rdf:Description rdf:about="#stmt2">
      <source rdf:resource="http://www.detnews.com/obituaries/..."/>
    </rdf:Description>
  

• statement IDs are part of an RDF feature called reification

RDF Abbreviated Syntax

• to avoid exposing content, RDF defines an abbreviated syntax that encodes everything as attribute values, e.g.

  <rdf:Description ... predicate="literal" .../>
  

  is equivalent to

  <rdf:Description ...>
    <predicate>literal</predicate>
    ...
  </rdf:Description>
  

• XML prohibits using the same attribute more than once in an element, so we can't say

  <!-- BAD: -->
  <rdf:Description ... predicate="literal1" predicate="literal2"/>
  

  but we can say

  <!-- GOOD: -->
  <rdf:Description ... predicate="literal1"/>
  <rdf:Description rdf:about="sameURI" predicate="literal2"/>
  

Embedding RDF in HTML

• we can embed rdf:RDF within HTML pages
  • use the abbreviated syntax to avoid exposing literals as HTML content
  • example: my home page
• this can be an easy way to embed DAML+OIL within existing servlets, etc.
• it's customary to put rdf:RDF in the <head> of an HTML document
• since few clients are likely to really want both the HTML and DAML+OIL content, it may be better to generate the HTML and DAML+OIL separately

Content Negotiation

• content negotiation is an HTTP feature that allows clients to indicate the data formats they accept and prefer
• a server might provide the same information in HTML, XML, and DAML+OIL formats
• content negotiation is based on MIME Media types
• we haven't yet established a MIME type for DAML+OIL, pending the decision on a MIME type for RDF
• the client supplies an HTTP header indicating the MIME types it will accept in preferred order, e.g.

  Accept:  image/gif, image/jpeg, */*
  

• many HTTP servers calculate MIME types from file extensions
  • e.g. .html and/or .htm result in text/html, etc.
• we generally recommend that DAML URIs omit the trailing .daml to allow for content negotiation
• most sites currently use text/plain for .daml to allow viewing by humans
• until things settle down, we may sometimes need to use the trailing .daml to differentiate representations

RDF Containers

• RDF XML includes syntax for defining Bag, Seq, and Alt containers
• their use is discouraged in DAML+OIL

DAML+OIL Syntax

• DAML+OIL uses the RDF XML Syntax plus the daml:collection parseType (discussed later)

Notation 3

• Notation 3 (N3) is a human-readable presentation syntax for RDF/DAML+OIL developed by Tim Berners-Lee
• example:

  @prefix daml: <http://www.daml.org/2001/03/daml+oil#> .
  @prefix rdfs: <http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#> .
  @prefix : <http://www.daml.org/2002/03/tutorial/sample.daml> . # content negotiation fails
  
  :subject :predicate1 :object1;
    :predicate2 "object2".
  
  :Airport a rdfs:Class;
    rdfs:subClassOf daml:Thing;  # also implicit
    rdfs:comment "literal".
  
  :SAN a :Airport;
    :location [ a Location;
                :latitude "32.7336";
                :longitude "-117.1866" ].
  

  is equivalent to

  <rdf:RDF xmlns:daml="http://www.daml.org/2001/03/daml+oil#"
           xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#"
           xmlns:rdfs="http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#"
           xmlns="http://www.daml.org/2002/03/tutorial/sample.daml#">
  
    <rdf:Description rdf:about="#subject">
      <predicate1 rdf:resource="#object1"/>
      <predicate2>object2</predicate2>
    </rdf:Description>
  
    <rdfs:Class rdf:about="#Airport">
      <rdfs:comment>literal</rdfs:comment>
      <rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="http://www.daml.org/2001/03/daml+oil#Thing"/>
    </rdfs:Class>
  
    <Airport rdf:about="#SAN">
      <location>
        <Location>
          <latitude>32.7336</latitude>
          <longitude>-117.1866</longitude>
        </Location>
      </location>
    </Airport>
  
  </rdf:RDF>
  

• not formally part of DAML+OIL, but becoming widely used
• can be easily converted to/from RDF/DAML+OIL

CREATING DAML+OIL CONTENT

Options for Creating DAML+OIL Content

• manual markup
• dynamic generation from databases
• generation from XML
• generation from HTML
• generation from natural language
• programmatic generation

Manual Markup

• DAML+OIL content can be entered on a page-by-page basis
• use a text editor
  • DAML Emacs Mode
• use an XML editor, such as XML Spy
• OntoMat provides good facilities for adding DAML+OIL to HTML
• RDF Author provides a means of graphically constructing content
• ...

Debugging DAML+OIL Content

• I generally do the following when producing DAML+OIL content
  1. load it into XML Spy to ensure that it's well-formed XML
  2. run it through the DAML Validator
  3. use it with the application program

DAML+OIL Validation

• we can't validate DAML+OIL in the same sense that we validate XML
  • DAML+OIL is intended to be dynamic and flexible
  • some checks could require a lot of computation
• the DAML Validator performs about 30 checks and generates indications for things that might be problems, e.g.
  • referencing namespaces that aren't resolvable over the WWW (might be typo)
  • using URIs as properties or classes that haven't been defined as such (might be a typo)
• in this sense, the DAML Validator is analogous to the Unix lint utility

Generating DAML+OIL Content from Databases

• a lot of information is currently in databases
  • it should stay there
    • persistence
    • scalability
    • concurrency control / transactions
    • integrity constraints
    • security
• several groups are working on automated means to map between relational databases and DAML+OIL
  • KAON-REVERSE
  • Horus Data Access Toolkit (should be released on www.daml.org soon)
• it's relatively easy to write servlets and other programs that dynamically generate DAML+OIL content from databases

Generating DAML+OIL Content from XML

• if you have information that's already in XML, it's very easy to use XSLT to generate DAML+OIL
  • example: gendamlo.xsl used to generate tools.daml from tools.xml
• personal opinion: XML and RDF(S)/DAML+OIL compete in some respects, but an organization that has gone to XML has probably completed 80% of the work to go to DAML+OIL

Generating DAML+OIL Content from HTML

• HTML "screen scraping" is fragile and otherwise undesirable, but provides a means to bootstrap the Semantic Web when we don't have more direct access to the data
• we've developed a set of tools and techniques known as DAML HTML Gateway Tools
• examples:
  • dynamic interface to New York Stock Exchange symbols on www.nyse.com: http://www.daml.org/cgi-bin/nyse?VZ
  • statically translated CIA World Fact Book in DAML
  • ...

Generating DAML+OIL Content from Natural Language

• AeroDAML is a tool for generating DAML+OIL from English text
• this is a research topic of interest to several groups

Programmatic Generation

• we'll cover the details of programmatically generating DAML+OIL in the next session

USING DAML+OIL CONTENT

DAML+OIL Design Patterns

• personal opinion: I expect several design patterns to emerge for DAML+OIL applications
  • centralized knowledge base (KB)
    • this is the "comfort zone" traditionally used in most knowledge systems
    • it's still appropriate for some applications, e.g. portals, if the KB is handled as a cache
  • agent communication
    • DAML+OIL is used as the content payload with an Agent Communication Language (ACL)
    • information is distributed
    • likely approach in EEE
  • distributed dynamic access
    • information is retrieved over the WWW on demand
      • e.g., for user "drill-down"
  • various hybrids of the above
  • ...

Options for Using DAML+OIL Content

• writing procedural code that uses and/or produces DAML+OIL content
• end-user tools
• query
  • a number of query tools are already available; more are under development
• reasoning with DAML+OIL
  • we'll address reasoning after discussing ontologies in detail

Procedural Code

• one can write procedural code that works directly with a DAML+OIL ontology and content
  • personal observation: such code is generally comparable in complexity and volume to code that works with an RDBMS model using JDBC
• examples:
  • DAML Agenda

Available APIs for DAML+OIL

• software libraries for working with RDF(S) and DAML+OIL have been developed for a variety of programming languages and environments, including
  • Java
    • RDF API
    • Jena
    • DAML API
  • C/C++
    • Redland
    • repat
  • C#
    • RDF.NET
  • Common Lisp
    • Wilbur
  • Python
    • Redfoot
    • 4Suite

API Layers

• APIs have emerged for dealing with DAML+OIL content at several layers

  inference	in addition to ground statements, model includes inferred statements based on the ontology	Jena com.hp.hpl.jena.daml package
  graph model	can traverse incoming and outgoing statements associated with each resource	Jena com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.model package
  statement	model is just a list of triples; streaming parsers can supply these incrementally	RDF API Jena com.hp.hpl.jena.rdf.arp package
  XML	conceptually doable, but difficult due to the lack of a standard canonical encoding for RDF (about/ID x abbreviated x Description/typedNodes = 8 ways of saying the same thing)

Vocabularies

• coding directly with URIs is error-prone and not typesafe
• RDF API and Jena include vocabulary packages containing static final Classes and Properties for RDF and DAML+OIL
• RDF API includes a edu.stanford.db.rdf.vocabulary.Generator program to generate vocabulary packages for your own ontologies
  • I've written a similar generator for Jena, but haven't released it yet :-(
• example: agenda_ont.java generated from agenda-ont.daml

Jena Example: Reading DAML+OIL

• basic approach
  

  // create a model
  com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.model.Model model = new com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.mem.ModelMem();
  
  // read DAML+OIL page(s) into model
  String uri1 = "http://...";
  model.read(uri1);
  // ...
  model.read(urin);
  
  // iterate over instances of a given Class, etc.
  

• example:
  • home inventory application: check that we haven't exceeded default insurance limits on certain household item categories
  • homeinv-ont (dumpont)
  • instances for personal household inventory
  • summarize.java totals acquisition prices for each class in the class hierarchy

Jena Example: Writing DAML+OIL

• basic approach
  

  // create a model
  com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.model.Model model = new com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.mem.ModelMem();
  
  // add statements
  com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.model.Resource subject = model.createResource("#" + id);
  com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.model.Resource anonymous = model.createResource();
  com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.model.Property predicate = ...; // typically from vocabulary
  model.add(subject,
            predicate,
            object); // overloaded for String, other primitive types, com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.model.Resource, etc.
  // ... ad nauseum
  
  // serialize model
  java.io.PrintWriter writer = new java.io.PrintWriter(System.out);
  model.write(writer);
  writer.close();
  

• example:
  • HTML front end: stock symbol information
  • nyse-ont (dumpont)
  • nyse.java dynamically gets information from www.nyse.com and generates DAML+OIL
  • execution: http://www.daml.org/cgi-bin/nyse?VZ

Dynamic Model

• standard Jena models contain only statements that are read or added
• org.daml.jena.DynamicModel is a wrapper around com.hp.hpl.mesa.rdf.jena.model.Model that causes pages to be loaded on demand
• this is the basis of the Dynamic Viewer in the earlier demo
• see here for more details

End-User Tools Using DAML+OIL Content

• WebScripter report generation
  • table-oriented view of DAML content
  • does a very nice job of identifying differing sources of information, e.g. priorities assigned by different users
  • can aggregate/translate information from multiple ontologies
  • example: DAML Validator wishlist (old)
• PalmDAML
• ...

DAML+OIL LANGUAGE

Motivation

• RDF Schema and DAML+OIL constrain an RDF graph
  • so programs know what to expect
  • so that additional inferences can be made
• DAML+OIL extends RDF(S) in the following ways
  • supporting XML Schema Datatypes rather than just string literals
  • local restrictions
  • enumerations
  • class expressions
  • ontology and instance mapping
  • providing additional hints to reasoners

XML Schema Datatypes

• XML Schema Datatypes is a W3C Recommendation (standard) defining built-in datatypes including
  • primitive
    • string
    • boolean
    • decimal
    • float
    • double
    • duration (e.g. PT30M for 30 minutes)
    • dateTime (e.g. 2002-03-01T15:00:00Z)
    • time (e.g. 15:00:00Z)
    • date (e.g. 2002-03-01)
    • anyURI
    • ...
  • derived
    • integer
    • long
    • int
    • short
    • byte
    • nonNegativeInteger
    • unsignedLong
    • unsignedInt
    • unsignedShort
    • unsignedByte
    • positiveInteger
    • ...
• the date/time/duration types use the ISO 8601 standard
• users can also derive their own types, including regular-expression patterns, e.g.

  <simpleType name="ssn">
    <restriction base="string">
      <pattern value="[0-9]{3}-[0-9]{2}-[0-9]{4}"/>
    </restriction>
  </simpleType>
  

• library support is becoming available
  • Oracle XML Schema Processor in the Oracle XML Developer's Kit
  • Castor

DAML+OIL Properties

• DAML+OIL defines 2 subclasses of rdf:Property
  • daml:DatatypeProperty
    • essentially a subclass of rdfs:Literal, restricting the lexical representation of the value to an XML Schema Datatype
  • daml:ObjectProperty
    • used to refer to another instance using rdf:resource
• daml:DatatypeProperty and daml:ObjectProperty are disjoint
  • if we need to use a property as both an ObjectProperty and a DatatypeProperty, we need to define it as rdf:Property
• alternative examples:
  

  <daml:DatatypeProperty rdf:ID="author">
    <rdfs:range rdf:resource="&xsd;string"/>
  </daml:DatatypeProperty>
  <daml:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="author"/>
  <rdf:Property rdf:ID="author">
    <rdfs:comment>could refer to either a string name or an instance</rdfs:comment>
  </rdf:Property>
  

Local Restrictions

• RDFS defines rdfs:domain and rdfs:range to globally constrain the use of properties
  • this can become awkard, e.g. requiring properties like carColor and eyeColor rather than just color
• DAML+OIL allows constraints to be specified on class/property pair using daml:Restriction, e.g.

  <rdfs:Class rdf:ID="MyClass">
    <rdfs:subClassOf>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#myProperty"/>
        ...
      </daml:Restriction>
    </rdfs:subClassof>
  </rdfs:Class>
  

• each daml:Restriction should specify daml:onProperty and only 1 of:
  • daml:toClass
  • cardinality
  • minCardinality
  • maxCardinality
  i.e. to specify toClass and cardinality, or minCardinality and maxCardinality, you have to use 2 Restrictions

daml:toClass

• a daml:toClass specifies the type associated with use of that property, e.g.

  <rdfs:Class rdf:ID="Person">
    <rdfs:subClassOf>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#parent"/>
        <daml:toClass rdf:resource="#Person"/>
      </daml:Restriction>
    </rdfs:subClassOf>
  </rdfs:Class>
  

  specifies that the parent of a Person is also a Person

Cardinality Restrictions

• RDFS provides no mechanism for limiting the number of statements containing the same subject and property
• DAML+OIL allow us to specify an absolute, minimum, or maximum cardinalities, e.g.

  <rdfs:Class rdf:ID="Person">
    <rdfs:subClassOf>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#parent"/>
        <daml:cardinality>2</daml:cardinality>
      </daml:Restriction>
    </rdfs:subClassOf>
    <rdfs:subClassOf>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#spouse"/>
        <daml:maxCardinality>1</daml:maxCardinality>
      </daml:Restriction>
    </rdfs:subClassOf>
  </rdfs:Class>
  

  indicating that a Person has 2 parents and can have at most 1 spouse
• daml:cardinality is a shorthand for specifying daml:minCardinality and daml:maxCardinality
• if no daml:minCardinality is specified, 0 is assumed
• if no daml:maxCardinality is specified, no limit is assumed

Validation vs. Inference

• there's a certain tension between use of Restrictions for validation vs. "inference opportunities"
• DAML+OIL generally favors inference
  • e.g. we specify that every Person has 2 parents, although this Restriction couldn't be satisfied by all instances in any finite knowledge base

Qualified Restrictions

• qualified restrictions (the "Q properties") specify additional restrictions on subsets of the property values, e.g.

  <rdfs:Class rdf:ID="Animal">
    <rdfs:subClassOf>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#parent"/>
        <daml:cardinality>2</daml:cardinality>
      </daml:Restriction>
    </rdfs:subClassOf>
  </rdfs:Class>
  <rdfs:Class rdf:ID="Mule">
    <rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="#Animal"/>
    <rdfs:subClassOf>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#parent"/>
        <daml:hasClassQ rdf:resource="#Horse"/>
        <daml:cardinalityQ>1</daml:cardinalityQ>
      </daml:Restriction>
    </rdfs:subClassOf>
    <rdfs:subClassOf>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#parent"/>
        <daml:hasClassQ rdf:resource="#Donkey"/>
        <daml:cardinalityQ>1</daml:cardinalityQ>
      </daml:Restriction>
    </rdfs:subClassOf>
  </rdfs:Class>
  

  states that a Mule has 2 parents (because it is an Animal), 1 of those parents must be a Horse, and 1 of those parents must be a Donkey
• qualified restrictions are not frequently used, but provide additional modelling power

daml:List

• RDF(S) supports collections, but doesn't provide a way to indicate that all members of the collection have been specified
• daml:List implements a linked list structure terminated with daml:nil so we know the list is complete
• daml:List is intended primarily for use within the language definition, but can be used by applications

daml:collection parseType

• rdf:parseType="daml:collection" provides a shorthand notation for specifying a daml:List structure, e.g.

  <oneOf rdf:parseType="daml:collection">
    <Color rdf:ID="red"/>
    <Color rdf:ID="white"/>
    <Color rdf:ID="blue"/>
  </oneOf>
  

  expands into

  <oneOf>
    <List>
      <first>
        <Color rdf:ID="red">
      </first>
      <rest>
        <List>
          <first>
            <Color rdf:ID="white">
          </first>
          <rest>
            <List>
              <first>
                <Color rdf:ID="blue">
              </first>
              <rest rdf:resource="http://www.daml.org/2001/03/daml+oil#nil"/>
            </List>
          </rest>
        </List>
      </rest>
    </List>
  </oneOf>
  

daml:oneOf

• allows us to enumerate the members of a Class, e.g.

  <daml:Class rdf:ID="color">
    <daml:oneOf rdf:parseType="daml:collection">
      <Color rdf:ID="red"/>
      <Color rdf:ID="white"/>
      <Color rdf:ID="blue"/>
    </daml:oneOf>
  </daml:Class>
  
  

Namespaces

• many IDs in the rdf and rdfs namespaces have equivalent IDs in the daml namespace
  • attempt to avoid having to remember 3 namespaces
  • most applications continue to use all 3 namespaces
    • better accommodates existing RDF(S) tools
• daml:Class is currently a subclass of rdfs:Class
  • daml:Class needs to allow subclass cycles (mutual subclassing), to express equivalence
  • we may be able to make them equivalent now that RDF Core has decided to allow subclass cycles

Class Expressions

• in additional to defining classes directly associated with instances, we can define classes in terms of other classes and properties
  • logical combinations of classes (OR, AND, NOT)
  • daml:hasValue
  • daml:hasClass
• class expressions are generally now implemented only in reasoners, but are expected to be used extensively with query and rules in the future

daml:unionOf

• allows us to OR 2 or more classes together, e.g.

  <daml:Class rdf:ID="AccessControlIdentity">
    <daml:unionOf rdf:parseType="daml:collection">
      <daml:Class rdf:about="#User"/>
      <daml:Class rdf:about="#Group"/>
    </daml:unionOf>
  </daml:Class>
  

daml:intersectionOf

• allows us to AND 2 or more classes together, e.g.

  <daml:Class rdf:ID="Father">
    <daml:intersectionOf rdf:parseType="daml:collection">
      <daml:Class rdf:about="#Parent"/>
      <daml:Class rdf:about="#Male"/>
    </daml:intersectionOf>
  </daml:Class>
  

daml:complementOf

• allows us to NOT a single class, i.e. designates the class of instances that are not instances of that class
• this can be used with daml:intersectionOf, e.g.
  

  <daml:Class rdf:ID="Minor">
    <daml:intersectionOf rdf:parseType="daml:collection">
      <daml:Class rdf:about="#Person"/>
      <daml:Class>
        <daml:complementOf rdf:resource="#Adult"/>
      </daml:Class>
    </daml:intersectionOf>
  </daml:Class>
  

daml:hasValue

• we can define classes based on property values, e.g.

  <daml:Class rdf:ID="Male">
    <daml:sameClassAs>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#gender"/>
        <daml:hasValue rdf:resource="#male"/>
      </daml:Restriction>
    </daml:sameClassAs>
  </daml:Class>
  

daml:hasClass

• allows us to further check property values, e.g.

  <daml:Class rdf:ID="Adult">
    <daml:intersectionOf rdf:parseType="daml:collection">
      <daml:Class rdf:about="#Person"/>
      <daml:Restriction>
        <daml:onProperty rdf:resource="#age"/>
        <daml:hasClass rdf:resource="http://www.daml.org/2001/03/daml+oil-ex-dt#over17"/>
      </daml:Restriction>
    </daml:intersectionOf>
  </daml:Class>
  

Ontology Mapping

• we expect that there will be many ontologies used by different communities, resulting in a need to translate between them
• DAML+OIL currently supports the following translation properties
  • rdfs:subClassOf
  • rdfs:subPropertyOf
  • daml:sameClassAs
  • daml:samePropertyAs
• example:

  <rdf:Description rdf:about="&agenda-ont;Speaker">
    <daml:sameClassAs rdf:resource="&researchers-ont;Person"/>
  </rdf:Description>
  

Instance Mapping

• different URIs may be used to denote the same instance (individual)
• DAML+OIL provides the following properties to map between instances (individuals)
  • daml:sameIndividualAs
  • daml:differentIndividualFrom
• example:

  <rdf:Description rdf:about="mailto:hendler@darpa.mil">
    <daml:sameIndividualAs rdf:about="mailto:hendler@cs.umd.edu"/>
  </rdf:Description>
  

• just because 2 URIs are different doesn't mean we can assume that they denote different individuals, unless daml:differentIndividualFrom is specified or inferred

Hints for Reasoners

• several DAML+OIL constructs are designed to provide additional information for reasoners
  • allows them to infer additional statements from ground statements expressed explicitly

daml:disjointWith

• daml:disjointWith indicates that if an instance is of one class that it cannot be an instance of the other, e.g.

  <daml:Class rdf:ID="Female">
    ...
    <daml:disjointWith rdf:resource="#Male"/>
  </daml:Class>
  

daml:inverseOf

• we can specify that ObjectProperties are inverses of each other
• example: given

  <daml:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="parent"/>
  <daml:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="child">
    <daml:inverseOf rdf:resource="#parent"/>
  </daml:ObjectProperty>
  

  and
  
  we can infer
  
  and vice-versa

daml:TransitiveProperty

• we can specify that an ObjectProperty is transitive
• example: given

  <daml:TransitiveProperty rdf:ID="ancestor"/>
  

  and
  
  we can infer
  
• among other things, daml:TransitiveProperty allows us to construct partonomies (transitive partOf relationships)

daml:UnambiguousProperty

• indicates that a given value for the property uniquely identifies a single instance
  • this is something like a primary key in a database
• unfortunately, a daml:UnambiguousProperty must currently be an daml:ObjectProperty and cannot be a daml:DatatypeProperty
• example: given

  <daml:UnambiguousProperty rdf:ID="emailAddress"/>
  

  and
  
  we can infer
  
• note the use of mailto: URIs, which are valid values for a daml:ObjectProperty although they don't represent resolvable DAML+OIL instances

daml:Ontology

• a daml:Ontology instance is used an indicator that a page contains a DAML+OIL ontology
  • a DAML+OIL ontology is really just a loose a collection of Class, Property, and Restriction instances and related statements
• it's customary to associate with an ontology
  • an rdfs:comment
  • daml:versionInfo consisting of a CVS $Id: all.htm,v 1.51 2002/07/15 17:29:06 mdean Exp $ or other human-interpretable version identifier with an ontology using
• example:

  <daml:Ontology rdf:about="">
    <rdfs:comment>sample ontology</rdfs:comment>
    <daml:versionInfo>$Id: all.htm,v 1.51 2002/07/15 17:29:06 mdean Exp $</daml:versionInfo>
  </daml:Ontology>
  

• note that rdf:about="" provides the URI for the containing page

Other Constructs

• several DAML+OIL constructs were intentionally not addressed above
  • daml:UniqueProperty
    • use a local daml:cardinality="1" Restriction instead
  • daml:imports
    • personal opinion: commitment is not well-defined
  • daml:disjointUnionOf
    • personal opinion: tries to do too much

Formal Semantics

• DAML+OIL has a formal semantics expressed in 2 forms:
  • model-theoretic
    • a set-theoretic representation
  • axiomatic
    • this is expressed in KIF, and can be directly processed by some reasoners
• the formal semantics is expected to result in
  • a better specification
  • more consistent and reliable implementations

Definitive References

• XML
• RDF
• RDFS
• DAML+OIL

CREATING ONTOLOGIES

Ontology Authoring Options

• reusing existing ontologies
• importing existing data models
• GUI construction tools
• text editor

Ontology Reuse

• check in the DAML Ontology Library
• can compose new ontologies by referencing classes and properties defined in one or more existing ontologies

Ontology Import

• several groups have done some early work in importing existing data models to create DAML+OIL ontologies
  • UML
  • CORBA IDL
  • Java
  • XML Schema/DTD
• imported ontologies should generally be viewed as a starting point, rather than a finished product
  • unless run-time mapping to a legacy data source is required

GUI Ontology Tools

• Protege
  • well-regarded open source tool with a large user base
  • SRI is developing a plug-in for DAML+OIL
  • doesn't directly support all DAML+OIL features
• OilEd
  • research tool from Manchester
  • developed for OIL, updated for DAML+OIL
  • support for defined classes, etc.
  • integrated with FaCT reasoner
• DUET
  • Rational Rose add-in
  • focused on building new ontologies, but can also be used for UML import
• no tools yet do a great job of referencing/reusing existing ontologies
  • good opportunity for a custom DAML+OIL ontology editor

Viewing Ontologies

• dumpont
  • simple web-based tool for viewing class and property hierarchies
  • example
• DUET
  • produces a UML model from a DAML+OIL ontology
  • example

Analyzing Ontologies

• several tools have been developed for analyzing ontologies (checking for missing terms, subclass loops, etc.)
• DAML Validator provides basic DAML+OIL content checks (run this first)
• ConsVISor
  • checks that subclasses restrictions are consistent with their superclasses, etc.
• Chimaera
  • performs a number of checks

REASONING WITH DAML+OIL

Reasoning Tools Supporting DAML+OIL

• different groups are using a variety of reasoning tools with DAML+OIL
  • JESS
  • XSB
  • cwm
  • JTP
  • TRIPLE
  • ...
• we'll cover each of these in some detail

Java Expert System Shell (JESS)

• JESS is a Java-based rule engine and scripting environment
• JESS started out as a Java implementation of CLIPS, which was a C implementation of OPS 5
• forward-chaining makes this a good base for publish/subscribe mechanisms, firing rules as new information becomes available
• GRCI includes some support for JESS in their DAML API
• example: expense reconciliation

XSB Prolog

• XSB is an open-source Prolog implementation originally developed at SUNY Stony Brook

Closed World Machine (cwm)

• Tim Berners-Lee developed cwm to experiment with rules and logic in RDF and N3
• cwm is open source Python code
• it essentially uses forward-chaining (generating all possible concusions up-front)
  • this limits the practical size of datasets
• cwm is a Welsh word for valley (a closed world) pronounced something like "koom"
• example: graph coloring

Java Theorem Prover (JTP)

• JTP is a forward-chaining inference engine developed for DAML+OIL at Stanford
• 100% Java, uses Jena
• can read KIF axioms as well as DAML+OIL
• in-progress example: bushes.daml

TRIPLE

• TRIPLE is XXX
• ... XXX uses F-Logic syntax
• current implementation based on XSB -- a future 100% Java implementation is planned

SOME DAML+OIL APPLICATIONS

Horus

• a web portal being built in collaboration with the Intelink Management Office (IMO)
• one of the earliest and most complete examples of using DAML+OIL

ITtalks

• UMBC's ittalks.org is a portal designed to alert users of talks of interest to them at local universities and research institutions
  • it was originally focused on Information Technology talks, but is now being broadened to cover other fields
• it uses DAML+OIL in several ways
  • describing talks
  • categorizing talks
  • user profiles
    • interests
    • geographic constraints
    • time constraints
    • example
• matching is performed by a XSB Prolog application
• it includes both agent (FIPA ACL) and HTML interfaces
• users can be notified by email, pager, etc.
• example

DASADA

• XXX - Nathan Combs
• see here

PRACTICAL ISSUES

Naming: URIs

• as in managing HTML web sites, it's good to think up-front about management of your URI namespace
  • cool URIs don't change
  • manage for for the long term
    • date space is a useful technique
      • example: http://www.daml.org/2002/
    • anticipate versioning
      • DRC has done some work in this area
      • Jeff Heflin addressed ontology versioning in his Ph.D. thesis
• though not required, it's highly desirable that URIs be resolvable
  • this supports validation and drill down
• try to keep the size of information at each URI within the range of current HTML pages (say 1 MB or less)
  • parsing a 35MB DAML file into a graph model can take over an hour

Naming: IDs

• if there's an identifier for instances of a given Class already in widespread use, use it
  • examples: military Unit Identification Codes (UICs), stock symbols, ZIP codes
• when multiple such ID schemes exist for a given class, generate instances for both and use daml:sameIndividualAs to map between them
  • examples:
    • airports: 3-character IATA, 4-character ICAO
    • countries: 2-character ISO, 2-character FIPS
• consider adding properties to existing instances rather than creating new ones
  • example: CIA World Factbook in DAML adds properties to FIPS countries

Access Patterns

• how will users find your data?
• if you expect users to access your data dynamically, you need to reflect this in your ontology
• consider the classic n:m Entity-Relationship example of students and classes:
  • given a student, can you find the classes?
  • given a class, can you find the students?
  • if you create a separate instance for the relationship, neither may be true (without backlinks)
• some tools may provide the ability to link from objects back to subjects
  • this isn't guaranteed
  • it only works with data that's already in the local model
• for dynamically generated content, it's desirable to generate both forward and backward links (inverse properties)
• personal opinion: I hope to use DAML-Services to answer questions like "Where can I find statements with population properties for instances of Country?"

Conventions

• a number of conventions are emerging in the use of DAML+OIL
  1. use "camel case" for ontology identifiers, capitalizing classes
     • examples: ClassName, propertyName
  2. separate ontologies and instances
  3. distinguish ontology URIs
     • e.g. http://www.daml.org/researchers-ont
  4. avoid use of the .daml suffix, where possible
  5. avoid use of relative URIs
  6. use rdfs:comment rather than <!-- XML comment --> to preserve information during processing
  7. include daml:versionInfo on each static page

Security

• confidentiality
  • we primarily depend upon the existing WWW infrastructure (e.g. SSL) to protect DAML+OIL content
• integrity
  • trust will be critical in the Semantic Web
  • we expect to use XML Signatures to digitally sign DAML+OIL content
• policy
  • several groups are working to define security policies using DAML+OIL
• there's a daml-security@daml.org email list for discussing security issues

EMERGING AREAS

W3C RDF Core WG

• chartered to complete RDF Schema and address issues identified by users of RDF (including the DAML+OIL community)
• key results
  • development of a large body of RDF Test Cases using the N-triples language
  • development of an RDF Model Theory
  • adding datatypes to RDF (in final discussion)
  • development of an RDF Primer (in progress)
• see here for more information

W3C Web Ontology (WebOnt) WG

• new part of the W3C Semantic Web Activity
• 52 members, co-chaired by Jim Hendler and Guus Schreiber
• WebOnt Charter
  • good summary of Semantic Web technical issues
  • DAML+OIL (March 2001) is the starting point for the Ontology Web Language (OWL)
  • rules, query, and services are specifically out of scope
    • may be addressed by a future working group
• started in November 2001; first face-to-face meeting in January 2002
• a W3C Working Draft on use cases and requirements should be published soon
  • a comparison of these requirements to DAML+OIL is also available
• the resulting language is expected to be called OWL for "Ontology Web Language" or "Web Ontology Language"
  • OWL is expected to ultimately replace DAML+OIL, but we recommend that users start now with DAML+OIL and migrate to OWL as the language and supporting tools become available
• see here for more information

DAML Services (DAML-S)

• use DAML+OIL to describe
  • types of services (book reviews, airline tickets, etc.)
  • how to interact with services (HTTP POST, SOAP, etc.)
  • terms and conditions (credit card charges, shipping, etc.)
• goes beyond existing Web Services such as WSDL and UDDI
• goals:
  • process description
  • automated invocation
  • service composition (lookup books at Amazon, get the New York Times reviews, buy from Barnes and Noble)
• Mark Burstein of BBN is leading a small effort to describe CoABS Grid services in DAML-S and develop a DAML-S binding for the CoABS Grid
  • we hope to use this in EEE
• more info here

Query

• there is an emerging hierarchy of query languages corresponding to language layers

  DAML+OIL	+ entailment	DQL
  RDFS	+ subclasses/subproperties	RQL, Sesame, DSSS
  RDF	direct statement match	RDF DB, Squish, Jena RDQL

Query Example: RDQL

• RDF Data Query Language (RDQL) is implemented by the com.hp.hpl.jena.rdf.query package in Jena
  • it uses an SQL-like syntax to perform exact matches on triples
• example: return any versionInfo information in the model
  

  SELECT ?subject, ?version
  WHERE (?subject, <daml:versionInfo>, ?version)
  USING daml FOR <http://www.daml.org/2000/12/daml+oil#>
  

  
  which returns sets of matching variable bindings

Query Example: DSSS

• Teknowledge's DAML Semantic Search Service loads crawled DAML+OIL content into SWI Prolog and allows queries optionally including subclasses and subproperties
• example: XXX

Query Example: DQL

• ... XXX DQL
• Stanford KSL has implemented DQL on top of JTP

Rules

• rules have been identified as a high priority by DAML+OIL users and are being addressed by the Joint Committee
• people want to use rules in a variety of different ways
  • property chaining
    • e.g. specifying uncle in terms of parent and brother)
  • rewriting/transformation
  • matching
  • equivalence
  • computation
  • class definition
  • trust
  • proofs
  • query
  • completion/defaults
  • ...
• the Dagstuhl Seminar on Rule Markup Techniques for the Semantic Web was held recently in Germany
  • a number of presentations addressed DAML+OIL
• until DAML Rules, DAML+OIL can be used quite effectively with RuleML or native rule representations
  • users are encouraged to report their experiences as use cases and requirements for DAML Rules
• some discussions take place on the www-rdf-rules@w3.org email list

Search

• JHU APL's HAIRCUT search engine combines text and DAML+OIL retrieval
  • example

RESOURCES

DAML+OIL Resources

• 45 DAML+OIL tools
  • includes work by EU and other collaborators
  • mostly open source
• DAML Ontology Library: 175 ontologies
• DAML Crawler: 2.7 million statements from 48 public sites
• DAML Applications: ~12 end-to-end applications of varying scale

More Information

• web sites
  • daml.org
  • W3C Semantic Web Activity
  • W3C Web Ontology (WebOnt) Working Group
  • semanticweb.org (Semantic Web news)
  • OntoWeb (European Semantic Web Thematic Network)
• email lists
  • www-rdf-interest@w3.org
  • www-rdf-logic@w3.org
• Semantic Web courses/seminars
  • Lehigh University
  • Vrije University, Amsterdam
  • University of Maryland
• conferences
  • International Semantic Web Conference (ISWC)
  • Semantic Web track at WWW 2002